Political Representation in South Asia

by J-T.M. · Published January 19, 2023 · Updated March 31, 2024

This course will cover major political developments in the postcolonial period from the standpoint of those—elected or not—who claim to represent constituents. Thematic in scope, the course will aim at unravelling the mechanisms that legitimize power in so-called ‘distributive’ democracies. The various classes will examine distinct and landmark political moments and their multifaceted institutional, economic, generational, mobilizational and gendered repercussions. The course will focus on six forms of political representation at work at local, state and national levels: group representation, patronage, welfarism, majoritarianism, populism and self-fashioning. It will include case studies to familiarize students with the range of institutions, party systems, ideologies and social structures at work in South Asia as well as topical notions and concepts, such as ’majoritarianism’, ’diasporas’, ’clientelism’ and ’authoritarianism’. In the process, we will examine the political contributions of a variety of actors central in the making of Indian democracy, including parties, candidates, businessmen, brokers, criminals, caste associations, bureaucrats, the media, the judiciary and consulting agencies.

This course will be divided into two parts. The first part (weeks 1-3) will give an overview of past and current theoretical debates about political representation while providing a brief historical overview of South Asia since the independence of India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The second part (weeks 4-13) will question the pillars of South Asian democracies through unpacking the various effective and legitimate ways of representing others politically in South Asian societies. The lectures are designed to give students the background needed to place the readings in context.

Course Validation

This course will be based on several complementary pedagogical approaches:

A 15 to 20 minutes presentation that each student is expected to make starting from the second course (30%).
Class attendance, participation, discussion and the digital annotation of two compulsory readings per teaching week (20%).
A written essay (6,000-8,000 words). Students will choose the topic with the advice and consent of the Professor. (40%). The essay is written in two stages: a first draft that receives feedback and a final draft. Students who do not meet the deadline for the first version will lose the right to receive feedback or submit a first draft; only the final draft will be accepted.

Prerequisites & Practicalities

There are no prerequisites. The class will be of most immediate interest to students majoring in Government, particularly those specializing in Comparative Politics, International Politics or Political Theory.
The schedule is tentative and subject to change. I will introduce the tool used to annotate readings in the course of the first class.

For a quick access to the readings:

Course Objectives

Successful students:

go beyond vote-based approaches to politics to understand representation;
understand how different political institutions, actors and processes shape Indian politics;
comprehend the tension between the proponents of authoritarian South Asian democracies and its contestations;
critically engage with ethnographic and statistical methods of inquiry;
draw meaningful comparisons between democracies inside and outside South Asia;
grasp the multifaceted nature of political representation in South Asia

Source: Pinney, Christopher. 2011. “The Tiger’s Nature, but Not the Tiger: Bal Gangadhar Tilak as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi’s Counter-Guru.” Public Culture 23(2):395–416. doi: 10.1215/08992363-1161967.
Author’s caption: Paradoxes of nonviolence: Photographic montage of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi embodying figures of political potency, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bhagat Singh, and Adolf Hitler. Ca. mid- 1940s, central India. Private collection.

Week 01: A gentle introduction to the question of this course: how to represent politically in South Asia? How many legitimate avatars of representation? What are their genealogies and contours? For whom? Since when?

Week 02: Acting for others and claiming to represent: A theoretical overview

⋆ Auerbach, Adam Michael, Jennifer Bussell, Simon Chauchard, Francesca R. Jensenius, Gareth Nellis, Mark Schneider, Neelanjan Sircar, Pavithra Suryanarayan, Tariq Thachil, Milan Vaish- nav, Rahul Verma, and Adam Ziegfeld. 2022. “Rethinking the Study of Electoral Politics in the Developing World: Reflections on the Indian Case.” Perspectives on Politics 20(1):250–64. doi: 10.1017/S1537592721000062. ⇒
† De, Rohit. 2018. “Introduction.” Pp. 1–31 in A people’s constitution: the everyday life of law in the Indian republic, Histories of economic life. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Or: Tawa Lama-Rewal, Stéphanie. 2016. “Political Representation in India: Enlarging the Per- spective.” India Review 15(2):163–71. doi: 10.1080/14736489.2016.1165552. ⇒
Saward, Michael. 2006. “The Representative Claim.” Contemporary Political Theory 5(3):297–318. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.cpt.9300234. ⇒
Fenichel Pitkin, Hanna. 1967. “Chapter 5. ‘Standing For’: Symbolic Representation.” Pp. 92–111 in The Concept of Representation. University of California Press. ⇒
Nayar, Pramod K. 2020. “Desecration and the Politics of ‘Image Pollution’: Ambedkar Statues and the ‘Sculptural Encounter’ in India.” Celebrity Studies 11(1):116–24. doi: 10.1080/19392397.2020.1704389. ⇒
Amin, Shahid. 1984. “Gandhi as Mahatma: Gorakhpur District, Eastern UP, 1921-22.” Pp. 1–61 in Subaltern Studies: Writings on South Asian History and Society, edited by R. Guha. Delhi: Ox- ford University Press. OR Bligh, Michelle C., and Jill L. Robinson. 2010. “Was Gandhi ‘Charis- matic’? Exploring the Rhetorical Leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.” The Leadership Quarterly 21(5):844–55. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.07.011. ⇒
✄ Devji, Faisal. 2018. “Jinnah and the Theatre of Politics.” Asiatische Studien / Études Asiatiques 67(4):1179–1203. doi: 10.25145/j.recaesin.2018.76.005. OR Martelli, Jean-Thomas, and Salil Parekh. 2022. “Chat-HI: Exploring Indian National Identity Through Machine-Generated Text.” Leonardo 55(1):62–83. ⇒

Week 03: Democracy and representation in South Asia(s): Layers, scale, dynamics and foci of power in the region

⋆ Morris-Jones, Wyndraeth H. 1963. “India’s Political Idioms.” Pp. 133–54 in Politics and Society in India, edited by C. H. Philips. London: Allen and Unwin. ⇒
† Aiyar, Yamini, and Louise Tillin. 2020. “‘One Nation,’ BJP, and the Future of Indian Federal- ism.” India Review 19(2):117–35. doi: 10.1080/14736489.2020.1744994. ⇒
Jaffrelot, Christophe. 2008. “Why Should We Vote? The Indian Middle Class and the Func- tioning of the World’s Largest Democracy.” Pp. 35–54 in Patterns of middle class consumption in India and China, edited by P. Van der Veer and C. Jaffrelot. London: Sage. ⇒
Chhibber, Pradeep, and Rahul Verma. 2019. “The Rise of the Second Dominant Party System in India: BJP’s New Social Coalition in 2019.” Studies in Indian Politics 7(2):131–48. doi: 10.1177/2321023019874628. ⇒
Sinha, Aseema. 2015. “Scaling Up: Beyond the Subnational Comparative Method for India.” Studies in Indian Politics 3(1):128–33. doi: 10.1177/2321023015575225. ⇒
van Schendel, Willem, and Erik de Maaker. 2014. “Asian Borderlands: Introducing Their Permeability, Strategic Uses and Meanings.” Journal of Borderlands Studies 29(1):3–9. doi: 10.1080/08865655.2014.892689. ⇒
✄ Nandy, Ashis. 1995. “An Anti-Secularist Manifesto.” India International Centre Quarterly 22(1):35–64. ⇒

Week 04: Parties and their surrogates: Elections, ideologies, symbolic representation and the new intermediaries of governance

⋆ Kitschelt, Herbert, and Steven Wilkinson, eds. 2007. “Citizens-Politician Linkages: An Introduction.” Pp. 1–49 in Patrons, clients, and policies: patterns of democratic accountability and political competition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Or: Chandra, Kanchan. 2015. “Democratic Dynasties: State, Party, and Family in Contempo- rary Indian Politics.” Pp. 12–55 in Democratic Dynasties, edited by K. Chandra. Cambridge University Press. ⇒
† Phadnis, Ajit, and Akansh Khandelwal. 2022. “The Rise of Political Consultancy in India.” India Review 21(2):249–76. doi: 10.1080/14736489.2022.2080487. ⇒
Banerjee, Mukulika. 2020. “Money and Meaning in Elections: Towards a Theory of the Vote.” Modern Asian Studies 54(1):286–313. doi: 10.1017/S0026749X17000798. ⇒
Manor, James. 1990. “How and Why Liberal and Representative Politics Emerged in India.” Political Studies 38(1):20–38. ⇒
Jaoul, Nicolas. 2016. “Citizenship in Religious Clothing?” Focaal 2016(76):46–68. doi: 10.3167/fcl.2016.760104. ⇒
Chakrabarty, Dipesh. 2001. “Clothing the Political Man: A Reading of the Use of Khadi/White in Indian Public Life.” Postcolonial Studies 4(1):27–38. doi: 10.1080/13688790120046852. ⇒
✄ Chatterjee, Partha. 2004. “Chapter 2. Populations and Political Society.” Pp. 27–53 in The politics of the governed: reflections on popular politics in most of the world, Leonard Hastings Schoff memorial lectures. New York: Columbia University Press. ⇒

Week 05: Holiday

Week 06: Representing the majority, but which one? Religious majoritarianism and its discontents

⋆ Hansen, Thomas Blom. 2018. “Whose Public, Whose Authority? Reflections on the Moral Force of Violence.” Modern Asian Studies 52(3):1076–87. doi: 10.1017/S0026749X17000282. ⇒
† Pradhan, Rajesh. 2014. “The Re-Emergence and Splintering of Religious Nationalism: Sad- hus in the Ramjanmabhoomi Conflict and Later.” Pp. 115–56 in “When the saints go marching in”: the curious ambivalence of religious sadhus in recent politics in India. New Delhi: Orient Black- swan. ⇒
Sircar, Neelanjan. 2022. “Religion-as-Ethnicity and the Emerging Hindu Vote in India.” Studies in Indian Politics 10(1):79–92. doi: 10.1177/23210230221082824. ⇒
Dhulipala, Venkat. 2011. “A Nation State Insufficiently Imagined? Debating Pakistan in Late Colonial North India.” The Indian Economic & Social History Review 48(3):377–405. ⇒
Brass, Paul R. 1997. “Chapter 3 Theft of an Idol.” Pp. 58–96 in Theft of an Idol: Text and Context in the Representation of Collective Violence. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ⇒
Brosius, Christiane. 2005. “Hindutva’s Media Phantasmagorias.” Pp. 95–131 in Empowering visions: the politics of representation in Hindu nationalism, Anthem South Asian studies. London: Anthem. ⇒
✄ Jaffrelot, Christophe, ed. 2009. “Chapter 6. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar.” Pp. 85–96 in Hindu Nationalism. Princeton University Press. OR BBC, Channel Two 2023. ‘India: The Modi Question – Series 1: Episode 1’. ⇒

Week 07: Social engineering as legit representation? Group-based politics, civil society the nation

⋆ Gupta, Dipankar. 2005. “Caste and Politics: Identity Over System.” Annual Review of Anthropology 34(1):409–27. doi: 10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120649. ⇒
† Gautier, Laurence, and Julien Levesque. 2020. “Introduction: Historicizing Sayyid-Ness: So- cial Status and Muslim Identity in South Asia.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 30(3):383–93. doi: 10.1017/S1356186320000139. ⇒
Chauchard, Simon. 2017. “Theory: The Impact of Descriptive Representation.” Pp. 99–144 in Why Representation Matters: The Meaning of Ethnic Quotas in Rural India. Cambridge University Press. ⇒
Laborde, Cécile. 2021. “Minimal Secularism: Lessons for, and from, India.” American Political Science Review 115(1):1–13. doi: 10.1017/S0003055420000775. ⇒
Elliott, Carolyn. 2016. “Clientelism and the Democratic Deficit.” Studies in Indian Politics 4(1):22–36. doi: 10.1177/2321023016634915. ⇒
Jodhka, Surinder S. 2016. “Ascriptive Hierarchies: Caste and Its Reproduction in Contempo- rary India.”Current Sociology 64(2):228–43. doi: 10.1177/0011392115614784. OR Jeffrey, Craig, Patricia Jeffery, and Roger Jeffery. 2008. “Dalit Revolution? New Politicians in Uttar Pradesh, India.” The Journal of Asian Studies 67(04):1365. doi: 10.1017/S0021911808001812. ⇒
✄ Chandhoke, Neera. 2003. “The Ambiguities of Civil Society.” Pp. 1–34 in The Conceits of Civil Society. New Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press. ⇒

Week 08: The local political economy of representation: Patronage, clientelism, muscle-politics and distributive politics

⋆ Berenschot, Ward, and Edward Aspinall. 2020. “How Clientelism Varies: Comparing Patronage Democracies.” Democratization 27(1):1–19. doi: 10.1080/13510347.2019.1645129. ⇒
† Michael Auerbach, Adam, and Tariq Thachil. 2020. “Cultivating Clients: Reputation, Responsiveness, and Ethnic Indifference in India’s Slums.” American Journal of Political Science 64(3):471–87. doi: 10.1111/ajps.12468. ⇒
Piliavsky, Anastasia, and Tommaso Sbriccoli. 2016. “The Ethics of Efficacy in North India’s Goonda Raj (Rule of Toughs): The ethics of efficacy in North India’s.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 22(2):373–91. doi: 10.1111/1467-9655.12404. ⇒
Björkman, Lisa. 2014. “‘You Can’t Buy a Vote’: Meanings of Money in a Mumbai Election: ‘You Can’t Buy a Vote.’” American Ethnologist 41(4):617–34. doi: 10.1111/amet.12101. ⇒
Vaishnav, Milan. 2020. “5. Doing Good by Doing Bad: The Demand for Criminality.” Pp. 157–204 in When Crime Pays: Money and Muscle in Indian Politics, edited by M. Vaishnav. Yale University Press. ⇒
Michelutti, Lucia. 2007. “The Vernacularization of Democracy: Political Participation and Popular Politics in North India.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 13(3):639–56. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9655.2007.00448.x. ⇒
✄ Kaviraj, Sudipta. 2005. “On the Enchantment of the State: Indian Thought on the Role of the State in the Narrative of Modernity.” European Journal of Sociology 46(2):263–96. doi: 10.1017/S0003975605000093. ⇒

Week 09: Populism, the media and the aesthetic of representation: Left, right and centre

⋆ Zia, Afiya Shehrbano. 2022. “Pious, Populist, Political Masculinities in Pakistan and India.” South Asian Popular Culture 20(2):181–99. doi: 10.1080/14746689.2022.2090679. ⇒
† Brass, Paul R. 2011. “Chapter 1. An Indian Political Life.” Pp. 32–49 in Charan Singh and Congress Politics, 1937 to 1961, The politics of Northern India, 1937 to 1987. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. ⇒
Wickramasinghe, Nira. 2022. “Mahinda Rajapaksa: From Populism to Authoritarianism.” Pp. 113–30 in Contemporary Populists in Power, edited by A. Dieckhoff, C. Jaffrelot, and E. Massicard. Cham: Springer International Publishing. ⇒
Chakravartty, Paula, and Srirupa Roy. 2015. “Mr. Modi Goes to Delhi: Mediated Populism and the 2014 Indian Elections.” Television & New Media 16(4):311–22. doi: 10.1177/1527476415573957. ⇒
Martelli, Jean-Thomas, and Christophe Jaffrelot. 2023. “Do Populist Leaders Mimic the Lan- guage of Ordinary Citizens? Evidence From India.” Political Psychology pops.12881. doi: 10.1111/pops.12881. ⇒
Varshney, Ashutosh, Srikrishna Ayyangar, and Siddharth Swaminathan. 2021. “Populism and Hindu Nationalism in India.” Studies in Comparative International Development 56(2):197–222. doi: 10.1007/s12116-021-09335-8. ⇒
✄ BBC, Channel Two 2023. ‘India: The Modi Question – Series 1: Episode 2’. ⇒

Week 10: Saturating representation: The state, bureaucracy and the politics of welfare schemes

⋆ Auerbach, Adam Michael. 2019. “Chapter 6. Party Workers and Public Goods Provision. Evidence from 111 Settlements.” Pp. 169–205 in Demanding Development: The Politics of Public Goods Provision in India’s Urban Slums. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ⇒
† Deshpande, Rajeshwari, Louise Tillin, and K. K. Kailash. 2019. “The BJP’s Welfare Schemes: Did They Make a Difference in the 2019 Elections?” Studies in Indian Politics 7(2):219–33. doi: 10.1177/2321023019874911. ⇒
Appadurai, Arjun. 2001. “Deep Democracy: Urban Governmentality and the Horizon of Politics.” Environment and Urbanization 13(2):23–43. doi: 10.1177/095624780101300203. ⇒
Kruks-Wisner, Gabrielle. 2018. “The Pursuit of Social Welfare: Citizen Claim-Making in Rural India.” World Politics 70(1):122–63. ⇒
Gupta, Akhil. 2012. “Let the Train Run on Paper: Bureaucratic Writing as State Practice.” Pp. 141–91 in Red Tape: Bureaucracy, Structural Violence, and Poverty in India. Durham: Duke University Press. ⇒
Baviskar, Amita. 2020. “Introduction: An Uncivil City.” Pp. 1–33 in Uncivil city: ecology, equity and the commons in Delhi. New Delhi, India: SAGE: Yoda Press. ⇒
✄ Chatterjee, Upamanyu. 2006b. “Three.” Pp. 22–45 in English, August: An Indian story, New York Review Books classics. New York: New York Review Books. ⇒

Week 11: The gender of non-representation: Patriarchy and women as political actors and constituents

⋆ Azim, Firdous, Nivedita Menon, and Dina M. Siddiqi. 2009. “Negotiating New Terrains: South Asian Feminisms.” Feminist Review 91(1):1–8. doi: 10.1057/fr.2008.54. ⇒
† Wimpelmann, Torunn. 2015. “One Step Forward and Many to the Side: Combating Gender Violence in Afghanistan.” Women Studies International Forum 51. ⇒
Menon, Nivedita. 2009. “Sexuality, Caste, Governmentality: Contests over ‘gender’ in India.” Feminist Review (91):94–112. ⇒
Ray, Raka. 1998. “Women’s Movements and Political Fields: A Comparison of Two Indian Cities.” Social Problems 45(1):21–36. doi: 10.2307/3097141. ⇒
Banerjee, Sikata. 1996. “The Feminization of Violence in Bombay: Women in the Politics of the Shiv Sena.” Asian Survey 36(12):1213–25. doi: 10.2307/2645576. ⇒
Khan, Sarah. 2020. “Women in Electoral Politics: An Account of Exclusion.” 2020. Pp. 162–177 in Pakistan’s Political Parties: Surviving between Dictatorship and Democracy, edited by Niloufer Siddiqui, Mariam Mufti and Sahar Shafqat. Georgetown University Press. Or: Jamal, Amina. 2009. “Gendered Islam and Modernity in the Nation-Space: Women’s Modernism in the Jamaat-e-Islami of Pakistan.” Feminist Review 91(1):9–28. doi: 10.1057/fr.2008.43. ⇒
✄ Bhattacharya, Shrayana. 2021. “The Boredom of Manju.” Pp. 215–46 in Desperately seeking Shah Rukh: India’s lonely young women and the search for intimacy and independence. Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India: HarperCollins Publishers India. OR Butalia, Urvashi. 2000. “‘Honour.’” Pp. 172–246 in Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India. London: Penguin Books. OR Mankekar, Purnima. 1999. “Chapter 5. Television Tales, National Narratives, and a Woman’s Rage: Multiple Interpretations of Draupadi’s ‘Disrobing.’” Pp. 224–56 in Screening Culture, Viewing Politics: An Ethnography of Television, Womanhood, and Nation in Postcolonial India. Duke University Press. ⇒

Week 12: Global representation: Multi-alignments, diasporic politics and long-distance nationalism

⋆ Kennedy, Andrew. 2011. “The International Ambitions of Mao and Nehru: National Efficacy Beliefs and the Making of Foreign Policy.” Pp. 10–40 in The International Ambitions of Mao and Nehru. Cambridge University Press. ⇒
† Guyot, Lola. 2021. “‘If You Become a Slave Here, Do You Think They’re Going to Fight There?’ Tamil Diaspora Mobilizations and Host-Country Politics.” South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal (27). doi: 10.4000/samaj.7665. ⇒
Singh, Gurharpal, and Giorgio Shani. 2022. “Sikh Nationalism: From a Dominant Minority to an Ethno-Religious Diaspora.” Pp. 163–89 in Sikh Nationalism in the Age of Globalisation and Hindutva, 1997 to the Present, New approaches to Asian history. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ⇒
Anderson, E., and A. Longkumer. 2018. “‘Neo-Hindutva’: Evolving Forms, Spaces, and Expressions of Hindu Nationalism’.” Contemporary South Asia 26(4):371–77. ⇒
Sullivan de Estrada, Kate. 2023. “India and Order Transition in the Indo-Pacific: Resisting the Quad as a ‘Security Community.’” The Pacific Review 1–28. doi: 10.1080/09512748.2022.2160792. ⇒
Jaffrelot, Christophe, and Ingrid Therwath. 2007. “The Sangh Parivar and the Hindu Dias- pora in the West: What Kind of ‘Long-Distance Nationalism’?” International Political Sociology 1(3):278–95. ⇒
✄ Kureishi, Hanif. 2009. “In the Suburbs.” Pp. 5–108 in The Buddha of Suburbia. London: Faber & Faber. ⇒

Week 13: Representation by self-fashioning? Youth politics, education, brokerage and the future of collective action

⋆ Hoque, Ashraf. 2020. “Chapter 2. The Rookie.” Pp. 51–70 in Mafia Raj, edited by D. Picherit, P. Rollier, A. E. Ruud, C. Still, A. Hoque, and N. Martin. Stanford University Press. ⇒
† Suykens, Bert. 2018. “‘A Hundred Per Cent Good Man Cannot Do Politics’: Violent Self- Sacrifice, Student Authority, and Party-State Integration in Bangladesh.” Modern Asian Studies 52(3):883–916. doi: 10.1017/S0026749X16001050. ⇒
Krishna, Anirudh. 2002. “Structure and Agency: New Political Entrepreneurs and the Rise of Village-Based Collective Action.” Pp. 32–55 in Active Social Capital: Tracing the Roots of Development and Democracy. New York: Columbia University Press. ⇒
Lukose, R. 2005. “Empty Citizenship: Protesting Politics in the Era of Globalization.” Cultural Anthropology 20(4):506–33. ⇒
Jeffrey, Craig. 2012. “Contradictory Youth Politics: Student Mobilisation in Uttar Pradesh.” Pp. 96–117 in Power and Influence in India: Bosses, Lords and Captains, edited by A. Engelsen Ruud and P. Price. London. ⇒
Martelli, Jean-Thomas. 2021. “The Politics of Our Selves: Left Self-Fashioning and the Production of Representative Claims in Everyday Indian Campus Politics.” Modern Asian Studies 55(6):1972–2045. doi: 10.1017/S0026749X2000013X. ⇒
✄ Chapters 3-4 in Weeraperuma, Susunaga. 2009. Sunil the Struggling Student. Marrakesh: M. Al Aafaq Al Maghribia Newspaper publications [digital copy not available]. ⇒

Week 14: Can the subaltern be heard? Identity, indigeneity, eco-incarceration and armed insurgencies

⋆ Mawdsley, Emma. 1998. “After Chipko: From Environment to Region in Uttaranchal.” Journal of Peasant Studies 25(4):36–54. doi: 10.1080/03066159808438683. ⇒
† Snellinger, Amanda. 2018. “From (Violent) Protest to Policy: Rearticulating Authority through the National Youth Policy in Post-War Nepal.” Modern Asian Studies 52(3):1043–75. doi: 10.1017/S0026749X16000937. ⇒
Gupta, Radhika, ed. 2023. “Reforming Self and Society.” Pp. 57–96 in Freedom in Captivity: Negotiations of Belonging along Kashmir’s Frontier, South Asia in the Social Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ⇒
Shah, Alpa. 2012. “Eco-Incarceration: Walking with the Comrades.” Economic and Political Weekly 47(21):32–34. AND Sundar, Nandini. 2013. “Reflections on Civil Liberties, Citizenship, Adivasi Agency and Maoism: A Response to Alpa Shah.” Critique of Anthropology 33(3):361–68. doi: 10.1177/0308275X13491040. ⇒
Roy, Mallarika Sinha. 2009. “Magic Moments of Struggle: Women’s Memory of the Naxalbari Movement in West Bengal, India (1967–75).” Indian Journal of Gender Studies 16(2):205–32. doi: 10.1177/097152150901600203. ⇒
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 2005. “Scattered Speculations on the Subaltern and the Popular.” Postcolonial Studies 8(4):475–86. doi: 10.1080/13688790500375132. ⇒
✄ Chandra, Uday. 2013. “Going Primitive: The Ethics of Indigenous Rights Activism in Contemporary Jharkhand.” South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal (7). doi: 10.4000/samaj.3600. OR Rothe, Arya, Isabella Rinaldi, Cristina Hanes, Yael Bitton, Ioan FIlip, Dan Stefan Rucareanu, and Santwana Bayaskar. 2020. ‘A Rifle and a Bag’. ⇒